Modern classification of a wide spectrum of religious philosophies stressing esoteric knowledge (Greek: gnosis) as the path to salvation.

Early Christians, like Jews & Greeks, tended to associate knowledge & wisdom with God. Paul's paradoxical theology of a crucified Christ, however, led him to warn against considering oneself superior to others because of special knowledge:

Knowledge (gnosis) puffs up, but love builds up. If any one imagines that he knows something, he does not yet know as he ought to know. [1 Cor 8:1-2]

The author of the pastoral letters (posing as Paul) extended that warning to cover any speculation that contradicted Pauline doctrine:

Avoid the godless chatter & contradictions of what is falsely called "knowledge" (gnosis), for by professing it some have missed the mark as regards the faith. [1 Tim 6:20-21]

Irenaeus echoed that warning in the original Greek title of his 5 volume refutation of Christian heresies of the 1st & 2nd c. CE: Detection & Overthrow of what is Falsely called 'Knowledge.' This work solidified the pejorative view of gnostics in Christian circles.

Irenaeus viewed all gnostics as intellectual heirs of a 1st c. Samaritan magician named Simon, who according to Luke, was a false Christian (Acts 8:9-24). Discovery of a gnostic library at Nag Hammadi in 1945, however, has led recent scholars to correct some of Irenaeus' misimpressions of gnostics:

• Gnostics had diverse origins. Not all were deviants from Christian orthodoxy. Some were radical Jewish mystics, others were syncretistic pagans. Others were pre-orthodox Christians, whose views were only later declared heretical.

• Gnostics agreed in form rather than specific doctrines: each claimed special mystic insights that were beyond the grasp of other people. But those insights varied with each individual's speculation. The more conservative simply offered novel interpretations of standard Jewish or Christian scriptures (particularly Genesis, Paul & the gospel of John). The more creative proposed imaginative mythological syntheses of ideas from just about anywhere.

Such uncontrolled originality & diversity led Irenaeus to complain:

Every one of them generates something new, day by day, according to his ability; for no one is deemed perfect [or, mature], who does not develop...some mighty fiction. [Against Heresies 1.18.1]

For all their diversity in specifics, gnostics tended to show certain common traits:

• a totally dualistic perception of reality (including the divine);
• an emphasis on self-knowledge;
• a focus on esoteric symbolism;
• a penchant for allegorization.

The historical apex of gnosticism was the middle of the 2nd c. CE, when the gifted Alexandrian teacher, Valentinus, was so influential that he was almost elected bishop of Rome (ca. 140 CE). For more than 20 years he was one of the most prominent Christian theologians, generating disciples in both the East & West. For almost a century orthodox theologians around the Mediterranean --- Clement at Alexandria, Irenaeus at Lyons, Origen at Caesarea & Hippolytus at Rome --- devoted much of their writing to countering the influence of the Valentinians. Yet the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library is evidence that their influence remained strong among rural monks at least through the 4th c. CE.

Other On-line Resources:

• An Introduction to Gnosticism - Lance S. Owens' research paper provides more details about the characteristics of classic gnosticism (posted by the Gnostic Society).

• The Gnostic Gospels - Elaine Pagels reviews the significance of the 54 gnostic texts discovered at Nag Hammadi for a historical understanding of Christian origins (posted by PBS: Frontline).