Nineteenth king of Macedonia, who conquered
the Persian Empire & initiated the fusion of Greek & oriental
cultures known as Hellenism that dominated the eastern Mediterranean
world for the next nine centuries. Alexander was the first conqueror
in history who planned not only to occupy enemy territory by military
force but to colonize his conquests with new cities modeled on those of
his own land. His armies were accompanied by surveyors,
engineers, architects, scientists, philosophers, statesmen &
historians who established a string of Hellenistic cities at
strategic locations throughout western Asia & north Africa, from Asia
Minor to Egypt & from Syria to northern India. The fact that his own reign
lasted just over a dozen years makes the lasting impact of his
achievements all the more remarkable.
Alexander was born near the northwestern
frontier of Greek culture, the son of Philip
II of Macedon & Olympias of Epirus (Albania). Though
Alexander's parents claimed descent from Homeric heroes, Greeks from the
city states to the south generally regarded them as "barbarians"
(i.e., foreigners). Yet Alexander received
the best possible Greek education from Macedonian tutors including Plato's independent-minded protégé,
the peripatetic philosopher Aristotle of Stagirus. While his
closest companions were drawn from the Macedonian court at Pella, from an
early age Alexander's horizons were broadened by the universal worldview of his mentor & his father's vision of a Pan Hellenic empire.
Thus, when Philip was assassinated (336
BCE) Alexander acted swiftly to launch
his campaign to conquer & unify the world by spreading Greek
civilization.
First, however, the 20 year old prince had to secure his succession to the Macedonian throne & gain
recognition as leader of the league of Greek city states that saw Philip's
death as an opportunity to assert their independence from Macedonian
domination. His task was complicated by the fact that his parents recent
divorce (338
BCE) had estranged him from his father. Yet he remained the
favorite of his father's army. At age 12 he had tamed a horse (whom he
named Bucephalus) that seasoned cavalry officers could not mount, simply
by noticing that it was spooked by its own shadow. At 14 he quelled a
rebellion while his father was away on a campaign. At 16 he had proved his
leadership skills & courageous spirit in the decisive Macedonian
victory over the combined forces of Thebes & Athens at Chaeronea. So
when Philip was murdered, the army supported Alexander in quickly
eliminating all rivals & reinstalling his Albanian mother as queen of
Macedonia.
This enabled Alexander to concentrate on
enforcing his claim to Philip's role as leader of the Hellenic league. A
rumor that he had been killed while fighting rebels prompted Thebes, with
support from Athens, to declare itself free from Macedonian domination
(335
BCE). Two weeks later Alexander arrived at the gate of Thebes. When
barred from entry, Alexander responded by reducing the city to ruins
(except for its temples & the house of Pindar) & selling survivors
into slavery. Faced with this specter of devastation, all opposition to
Alexander in other Greek city states collapsed.
Instead of seeking to penalize other Greeks
who had opposed him, Alexander rallied Greek support for a massive
campaign against their old adversary, the Persian empire. In the spring of
334
BCE Alexander crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor at the head of a
combined Macedonian & Greek fighting force of 35,000 with a large
civil corps as auxiliary. In less than two years he completely routed
Persian forces & even took the royal family hostage--except for king
Darius III himself--at the battle of Issus (fall 333
BCE).
While Alexander acted swiftly &
decisively to best any who challenged him, he repeatedly demonstrated
graciousness & leniency to former opponents who acknowledged his
suzerainty. Thus, his campaign was not all relentless
conquest. Word of a few decisive Macedonian military victories over
the Persian army prompted most of the cities of Asia Minor & Syria to
welcome Alexander as their heroic liberator. He responded by accepting
non-Greeks, even former Persian opponents, into his entourage.
The Phoenician city of Tyre
was an exception. An ancient island fortress with seemingly impregnable
fortifications & an excellent navy, Tyre prided itself as master of
the Mediterranean. It was not prepared to surrender to a foreign
commander who had no effective navy. Not willing to tolerate such
opposition, Alexander waged an innovative 7 month siege in which he
constructed a causeway from the mainland to the island. In July 332
BCE
Alexander's forces stormed Tyre's fortifications. Men were
slaughtered, women & children sold into slavery.
This stunning victory, followed by one at Gaza,
prompted Egypt to welcome Alexander as its liberator & king (November
332
BCE). After initiating plans for the construction of Alexandria, he
set out on a pilgrimage to the sacred oasis of Siwa. There
the oracle of Amun hailed him as "son of God" (the standard Egyptian
greeting of a Pharaoh)--which Alexander & later Greeks, who equated
Amun with Zeus, interpreted as proof of divine paternity.
The next year he reached the Tigris, routed
Darius' forces & claimed control of Babylon & all Mesopotamia.
Susa, the capital of Persia, surrendered to him without a fight, giving
him access to its vast royal treasury. The Hellenic war of vengeance ended
with his symbolic burning of Xerxes' palace at Persepolis, after which he
dismissed his Greek allies. Alexander's Macedonian troops, however,
pressed on into central Asia. When Darius, who had been reduced to a
fugitive, was murdered by one of his own governors (330
BCE) Alexander
laid claim to the Persian royal titles of "King of Kings" &
"Lord of Asia." As he journeyed eastward he became increasingly
influenced by oriental traditions of divine monarchy (including
prostration) & less committed to the democratic principles of his
Greek education. Yet his personal inclinations towards absolutism
were at least partially checked by his companions who were less inclined
to adopt new customs.
After a long trek through Bactria &
Afghanistan, Alexander reached northern India (327
BCE) where he won his
last major battle & founded the city of Bucephala to honor his horse
who had fallen in battle. Threatened with mutiny by a weary army if he
went any deeper into India, Alexander returned to Susa (324
BCE) &
began to reorganize the government of Persian provinces that were now
under his control. In an effort to unify his vast domain, he staged a
massive wedding of 10,000 of his Macedonian troops to Persian brides. But
his desired fusion of cultures was thwarted by Macedonian reluctance to
accept Persians as equals. He averted open mutiny among his troops only by
threatening to dismiss them & replace them with Persians.
Early in 323
BCE Alexander returned to
Babylon to plan extensive construction. But in early June he fell ill at a
lavish banquet & died soon after (age 33). He was buried in
Alexandria, Egypt & revered as a god both there & throughout
Greece. The barbarian prince who had identified himself with mythic heroes
became himself the focus of a heroic cult. Yet he failed to establish a
lasting dynasty.
References: Josephus,
Antiquities
11.305, 313-346; 12.1, 8,11
_____, War 2.360,
487-488; 5.465; 7.245
_____, Apion
1.183-185, 194, 200; 2.35-44, 72.
Arrian,
Campaigns of Alexander.
Plutarch,
Life of Alexander.
Perspective on the
World of Jesus 